five motivational orientations in the learning process
WebIn a substantial review, Murphy and Alexander ( 2000) have identified a corpus of 20 academic achievement-related motivational terms that can be grouped into four clusters: (a) goal, including ego-involved goal, task-involved goal, learning goal, mastery goal, performance goal, work-avoidance goal, and social goal; (b) intrinsic versus extrinsic However, clear feedback that sets high expectations and assures a student that he can reach those expectations are also important (Cohen and Steele, 2002; Cohen et al., 1999). Self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1977), which is incorporated into several models of motivation and learning, posits that the perceptions learners have about their competency or capabilities are critical to accomplishing a task or attaining other goals (Bandura, 1977). (women and men do equally well on it) orin the threat conditionas one at which women do less well. Problem solving is facilitated when the salient mindset is well matched to the task at hand, suggesting that flexibility in cultural mindset also may promote flexible cognitive functioning and adaptability to circumstances (Vezzali et al., 2016). Lazowski and Hulleman (2016) conducted a meta-analysis of research on such interventions to identify their effects on outcomes in education settings. We explore research on peoples own beliefs and values, intrinsic motivation, the role of learning goals, and social and cultural factors that affect motivation to learn. It is the lens through which an individual makes sense of experiences and positions herself in the social world. Learners who are intrinsically motivated also perceive that the challenges of a problem or task are within their abilities. Learners may not engage in a task or persist with learning long enough to achieve their goals unless they value the learning activities and goals. These findings highlight an important feature of stereotype threat: it is not a characteristic solely of a person or of a context but rather a condition that results from an interaction between the two. Values-affirmation exercises in which students write about their personal values (e.g., art, sports, music) have bolstered personal identity, reduced threat, and improved academic performance among students experiencing threat (Cohen et al., 2006, 2009; Martens et al., 2006). 143145; also see Cerasoli et al.. 2016; Vansteenkiste et al., 2009). Learners may not always be conscious of their goals or of the motivation processes that relate to their goals. Advances since the publication of HPL I provide robust evidence for the importance of both an individuals goals in motivation related to learning and the active role of the learner in shaping these goals, based on how that learner conceives the learning context and the experiences that occur during learning. and exercises that directly target how students interpret their experiences, particularly their challenges in school and during learning. The effects of negative stereotypes about African American and Latino students are among the most studied in this literature because these stereotypes have been persistent in the United States (Oyserman et al., 1995). Values-affirmation interventions are designed to reduce self-handicapping behavior and increase motivation to perform. During adolescence, for example, social belongingness goals may take precedence over academic achievement goals: young people may experience greater motivation and improved learning in a group context that fosters relationships that serve and support achievement. However, it is not always easy to determine what goals an individual is trying to achieve because learners have multiple goals and their goals may shift in response to events and experiences. However, a consideration for both research and practice moving forward is that there may be much more variation within cultural models of the self than has been assumed. When learners believe they have control over their learning environment, they are more likely to take on challenges and persist with difficult tasks, compared with those who perceive that they have little control (National Research Council, 2012c). The experience of being evaluated in academic settings can heighten self-awareness, including awareness of the stereotypes linked to the social group to which one belongs and that are associated with ones ability (Steele, 1997). being tested. Research is needed, however, to better establish the efficacy of practices designed to shape learners thinking about future identities and persistence. For example, an adolescent who aspires to become a physician but who continually fails her basic science courses may need to protect her sense of competence by either building new strategies for learning science or revising her occupational goals. WebThe instruments used to assess motivational orientation and strategic learning are described below. Some interventions focus on the psychological mechanisms that affect students construal of the learning environment and the goals they develop to adapt to that environment. The perception of having a choice may also influence situational interest and engagement, as suggested by a study that examined the effects of classroom practices on adolescents enrolled in a summer school science course. Thus, the negative effects of stereotype threat may not be as apparent on easy tasks but arise in the context of difficult and challenging tasks that require mental effort (Beilock et al., 2007). Ready to take your reading offline? Over the past decade, a number of studies have suggested that interventions that enhance both short- and long-term motivation and achievement using brief interventions or exercises can be effective (e.g., Yeager and Walton, 2011). Learners who believe intelligence is malleable, she suggested, are predisposed toward adopting mastery goals, whereas learners who believe intelligence is fixed tend to orient toward displaying competence and adopting performance goals (Burns and Isbell, 2007; Dweck, 1986; Dweck and Master, 2009; Mangels et al., 2006). Choice may be particularly effective for individuals with high initial interest in the domain, and it may also generate increased interest (Patall, 2013). According to self-efficacy theory, learning develops from multiple sources, including perceptions of ones past performance, vicarious experiences, performance feedback, affective/physiological states, and social influences. The concept of value encompasses learners judgments about (1) whether a topic or task is useful for achieving learning or life goals, (2) the importance of a topic or task to the learners identity or sense of self, (3) whether a task is enjoyable or interesting, and (4) whether a task is worth pursuing (Eccles et al., 1983; Wigfield and Eccles, 2000). Learners may simultaneously pursue multiple goals (Harackiewicz et al., 2002; Hulleman et al., 2008) and, depending on the subject area or skill domain, may adopt different achievement goals (Anderman and Midgley, 1997). HPL I1 emphasized some key findings from decades of research on motivation to learn: 1 As noted in Chapter 1, this report uses the abbreviation HPL I for How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition (National Research Council, 2000). Self-determination theory posits that behavior is strongly influenced by three universal, innate, psychological needsautonomy (the urge to control ones own life), competence (the urge to experience mastery), and psychological relatedness (the urge to interact with, be connected to, and care for others). Teachers can influence the goals learners adopt during learning, and learners perceptions of classroom goal structures are better predictors of learners goal orientations than are their perceptions of their parents goals. When learners with mastery goals work to recall a previously learned piece of information, they also activate and strengthen memory for the other, related information they learned. A mastery-oriented structure in the classroom is positively correlated with high academic competency and negatively related to disruptive behaviors. The authors found that the designs developed separately were more effective and concluded that when students refined their initial designs, they were trapped by their initial decisions. Experiential learning is a cognitive strategy that allows you to take valuable life lessons from your interactions with other people. Participating students responded to only 16 of the full set of 81 MSLQ For example, in cross-cultural studies of academic goals, Dekker and Fischer (2008) found that gaining social approval in achievement contexts was particularly important for students who had a collectivist perspective. Praise received after success influences students later achievement motivation but perhaps not in the way intended. This paper reports on a study of five motivational orientations in continuing education among working adults. The influence of motivational orientations on their academic achievement was identified. The study involved 159 working adults who enrolled into part-time programs in an Open University in Sabah. The researchers posted the advertisements and assessed their effectiveness both by counting how many clicks each generated and by asking experts in Web graphics to rate them. Second, the interventions adopt a student-centric perspective that takes into account the students subjective experience in and out of school. Such findings suggest that having opportunities to be reminded of the full range of dimensions of ones identity may promote resilience against stereotype threats. There is also strong evidence for the view that engagement and intrinsic motivation develop and change over timethese are not properties of the individual or the environment alone. Some researchers have found positive outcomes when learners have endorsed normative goals (a type of performance goal) (Covington, 2000; Linnenbrink, 2005). For example, women are given a test in math. Steele has noted that stereotype threat is most likely in areas of performance in which individuals are particularly motivated. Students who shift between these two mindsets may take a reflective stance that enables them to inspire themselves and to persist and perform well on difficult tasks to attain future goals (Immordino-Yang and Sylvan, 2010). In both cases, it is a change in mindset and goal construction brought about by interest that explains improved learning outcomes (Barron, 2006; Bricker and Bell, 2014; Goldman and Booker, 2009). MyNAP members SAVE 10% off online. Researchers have also tried to integrate the many concepts that have been introduced to explain this complex aspect of learning in order to formulate a more comprehensive understanding of motivational processes and their effects on learning. Identity has both personal and social dimensions that play an important role in shaping an individuals goals and motivation. There are five motivational orientations in the learning process that affect how a student responds to new learning. eliminate stereotype threat, much of this research has been in highly controlled settings. In contrast, situational interest refers to a psychological state that arises spontaneously in response to specific features of the task or learning environment (Hidi and Renninger, 2006). However, other studies have not replicated these findings (e.g., Dee, 2015; Hanselman et al., 2017), so research is needed to determine for whom and under which conditions values-affirmation approaches may be effective. Performance goals may in fact undermine conceptual learning and long-term recall. This body of work seems to suggest that though there were differences, the performance avoidance may also have different outcomes in societies in which individualism is prioritized than in more collectivistic ones. When competition is using as a motivational strategy it arouse aspiration of wining, doing better than others. Interest is also important in adult learning in part because students and trainees with little interest in a topic may show higher rates of absenteeism and lower levels of performance (Ackerman et al., 2001). These students experience a form of stereotype threat, where prevailing cultural stereotypes about their position in the world cause them to doubt themselves and perform more poorly (Steele and Aronson, 1995). External rewards can be an important tool for motivating learning behaviors, but some argue that such rewards are harmful to intrinsic motivation in ways that affect persistence and achievement. Students who received praise for ability were more likely to adopt performance goals on a subsequent test, whereas those praised for effort were more likely to adopt mastery goals. Jump up to the previous page or down to the next one. African American school-age children perform worse on achievement tests when they are reminded of stereotypes associated with their social group (Schmader et al., 2008; Wasserberg, 2014). When oriented to mastery goals, students purpose or goal in an achievement setting is to develop their competence. This volume addresses motivation in language learning Practices that engage students and influence their attitudes may increase their personal interest and intrinsic motivation over time (Guthrie et al., 2006). The students who developed separate advertisements explored the possibilities more thoroughly and had more ideas to choose from. For example, a brief intervention was designed to enhance student motivation by helping learners to overcome the negative impact of stereotype threat on social belongingness and sense of self (Yeager et al., 2016). structure that apply, and as a result, students may shift their goal orientation to succeed in the new context (Anderman and Midgley, 1997). This example is a reminder that sometimes the materials and strategies that teachers intend to support learning can have the opposite effect for some students. Goal Orientation Awareness. One group of interventions to address performance setbacks has focused on exercises to help students shift from a fixed view of intelligence to a growth theory of intelligence. The full range of factors that may be operating and interacting with one another has yet to be fully examined in real-world environments. However a third dimension of goal orientation has recently been added: performance-avoidance goal orientation. article continues A broad constellation of factors and circumstances may either trigger or undermine students desire. friendships and more flexible action plans for achieving those goals. The teacher's own development becomes a central goal of teacher education. For example, children may adopt an academic goal as a means of pleasing parents or because they enjoy learning about a topic, or both. 7 Jrvenoja 8 suggests that motivation Over the past several decades, researchers have attempted to discern the influence of culture on a persons self-construal, or definition of herself in reference to others. In a large study of students across several nations that examined seven different dimensions related to self-construal (Vignoles et al., 2016), researchers found neither a consistent contrast between Western and non-Western cultures nor one between collectivistic and individualistic cultures. In contrast, they argued, the prevailing North American culture tends to emphasize individualistic goals and an individualistic self-construal that prioritizes unique traits, abilities, and accomplishments tied to the self rather than to the community. They further distinguish between performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals (Senko et al., 2011). Under threatening conditions, individuals show lower levels of activation in the brains prefrontal cortex, reflecting impaired executive functioning and working memory (Beilock et al., 2007; Cadinu et al., 2005; Johns et al., 2008; Lyons and Beilock, 2012; Schmader and Jones, 2003) and higher levels of activation in fear circuits, including, for example, in the amygdala (Spencer et al., 1999; Steele and Aronson, 1995). They seek to extend their One possible reason why exercising choice seems to increase motivation is that the act of making a choice induces cognitive dissonance: a feeling of being uncomfortable and unsure about ones decision. Findings from studies of this sort suggest that educators can foster students interest by selecting resources that promote interest, by providing feedback that supports attention (Renninger and Hidi, 2002), by demonstrating their own interest in a topic, and by generating positive affect in learning contexts (see review by Hidi and Renninger, 2006). . In stark contrast, when asked to solve the problems in classroom math terms, players were visibly distressed. When speaking about basketball, players spoke like expertsthey were confident; they sat up straight and answered in relaxed, even vocal tones. People who come from backgrounds where college attendance is not the norm may question whether they belong in college despite having been admitted. The implementation level of theories such as social cognitive theory and expectancy theory is still in initial stages but can significantly contribute to understanding motivation in learning as well as other aspects of life where motivation is crucial. 1. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Theory Neurophysiological evidence supports this understanding of the mechanisms underlying stereotype threat. You're looking at OpenBook, NAP.edu's online reading room since 1999. Researchers have identified several actions educators can take that may help to manage stereotype threat. Similar negative effects of stereotype threat manifest among Latino youth (Aronson and Salinas, 1997; Gonzales et al., 2002; Schmader and Johns, 2003). After 3 years, African American students who had participated in the intervention reported less uncertainty about belonging and showed greater improvement in their grade point averages compared to the European American students. Current researchers regard many of these factors as important but have also come to focus on learners as active participants in learning and to pay greater attention to how learners make sense of and choose to engage with their learning environments. External rewards, it is argued, may also undermine the learners perceptions of autonomy and control. Since then, researchers have continued to investigate the nature of learning and have generated new findings related to the neurological processes involved in learning, individual and cultural variability related to learning, and educational technologies. . The teacher reported that from March through September this student was judged consistently as green (successful) because he worked hard and interacted appropriately with others. For instance, priming learners to adopt a multicultural mindset may support more-divergent thinking about multiple possible goals related to achievement, family, identity, and. throughout the life course. Third, the brief interventions are designed to indirectly affect how students think or feel about school or about themselves in school through experience, rather than attempting to persuade them to change their thinking, which is likely to be interpreted as controlling. The texts that students viewed as less interesting interfered with comprehension in that they, for example, offered incomplete or shallow explanations, contained difficult vocabulary, or lacked coherence. From the perspective of self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan, 1985, 2000; Ryan and Deci, 2000), learners are intrinsically motivated to learn when they perceive that they have a high degree of autonomy and engage in an activity willingly, rather than because they are being externally controlled. Practices that help learners recognize the motivational demands required and obstacles to overcome for achieving desired future outcomes also may support goal attainment, as suggested in one study of childrens attempts to learn foreign-language vocabulary words (Gollwitzer et al., 2011). Another approach to overcoming the bias of knowledge is to use strategies that can prevent some of the undesirable consequences of holding negative perspectives. The influence of motivational orientations WebThe second section (motivation orientations) is made up of seven different motivation orientations, which were 1. integrative orientation (Item 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, 13), 2. instrumental orientation (Item 2, 4, 7, 9, 12, 14), 3. intrinsic motivation (Item For example, learners can be repositioned as the bearers of knowledge or expertise, which can facilitate identity shifts that enable learners to open up to opportunities for learning (Lee, 2012). It has been suggested that the longer-term effects of stereotype threat may be one cause of longstanding achievement gaps (Walton and Spencer, 2009). WebThe MSLQ is designed to measure students motivational orientation and use of different learning strategies. The report summarized insights on the nature of learning in school-aged children; described principles for the design of effective learning environments; and provided examples of how that could be implemented in the classroom. One such strategy is to support learners in trying out multiple ideas before settling on the final idea. Motivational models consider motivation a construct to explain the beginning, direction and perseverance of a conduct toward a certain academic goal that centers on inherent questions to the learning process, academic performance and/or the self, social evaluation or to even avoid work. Similarly, activities that learners perceive as threatening to their sense of competence or self-esteem (e.g., conditions that invoke stereotype threat, discussed below3) may reduce learners motivation and performance even (and sometimes especially) when they intend to perform well. Initially, there were two types of goal orientation: mastery and performance goals, which are also referred to as learning and performance goals, task-focused and ability-focused goals, task involved and ego-involved goals. In research that confronted women with negative gender-based stereotypes about their performance in mathematics but prompted them to think of other aspects of their identity, the women performed on par with men and appeared to be buffered against the deleterious effects of gender-based stereotypes. Intrinsic motivation (IM) and extrinsic motivation (EM) were assessed using a decomposed version (Lemos & Verssimo, 2006) of the Scale of Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Orientation in the Classroom (Harter, 1981). Show this book's table of contents, where you can jump to any chapter by name. Table 6-2 summarizes a longstanding view of how the prevailing classroom goal structureoriented toward either mastery goals or performance goalsaffects the classroom climate for learning. Research related to mindsets has focused on patterns in how learners construe goals and make choices about how to direct attention and effort. It includes statements such as, I learn because I am interested in the topic.. Research suggests, for example, that aspects of the learning environment can both trigger and sustain a students curiosity and interest in ways that support motivation and learning (Hidi and Renninger, 2006). This may also be the case when learners feel valued and respected for their demonstrations of expertise, as when a teacher asks a student who correctly completed a challenging homework math problem to explain his solution to the class. Some evidence suggests that these and other multicultural priming interventions improve creativity and persistence because they cue individuals to think of problems as having multiple possible solutions. Further, congruence in learners perceptions of their own and their schools mastery orientation is associated with positive academic achievement and school well-being (Kaplan and Maehr, 1999). Although cultures may vary on average in their emphasis on individualism and collectivism, learners may think in either individualistic and collectivistic terms if primed to do so (Oyserman et al., 2009). The meaning of motivation and three main approaches to motivational psychology: expectancy-value theory, goal-directed theory and the self-determination The effectiveness of brief interventions appears to stem from their impact on the individuals construal of the situation and the motivational processes they set in motion, which in turn support longer-term achievement.
